Ben Bates free essay sample

Brief summary of the case Ben Bates, 28 years old, graduated from college six years ago with a finance undergraduate degree. He is now working at the financial management company of Dewey and Louis. He expects to work for 38 years later. His goal is to become an investment banker. And he feels that an MBA degree would allow him to achieve this goal. After examining schools, he has narrowed his choice to either Wilton University or Mount Perry College. The Ritter College of Business is under Wilton University: It offers the country’s leading MBA program. Its MBA degree requires two years of full-time enrollment at the university. The annual tuition is $63,000, payable at the beginning of each school year. Books and other supplies are estimated to cost $2,500 per year. The Bradley School of Business at Mount Perry College began its MBA program 6 years ago. The Bradley School is smaller and less well known than the Ritter College. We will write a custom essay sample on Ben Bates or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Its program lasts one year, with a tuition cost of $80,000 to be paid upon matriculation. Books and other supplies for the program are estimated to cost $3,500. Both schools offer a health insurance plan that will cost $3000 per year, payable at the beginning of the year. Ben also estimates that room and board expenses will cost $20,000 per year at both schools. Besides, neither school will allow its students to work while enrolled in its MBA program. Here is Ben’s private financial information: His annual salary is $50,000 per year, and it is expected to increase at 3 percent per year until retirement. His current job includes a fully paid health insurance plan, and his current average tax rate is 26 percent. Ben has a savings account with enough money to cover the entire cost of his MBA program. Ben expects that after graduation from Wilton, he will receive a job offer for about $98,000 per year, with a $15,000 signing bonus. The salary for this job will be increased by 4 percent per year. His average income tax rate will rise to 31 percent. Besides, Ben thinks that he will receive an offer of $81,000 per year with a $10,000 signing bonus upon graduation from Mount Perry. The salary for this job will be increased by 3. 5 percent per year. Therefore, his average tax rate at this level of income will be 29 percent. The appropriate discount rate is 6. 5 percent. 2. Answering the questions 2. 1. Question 1: How does Ben’s age influence his decision to pursue an MBA? Ben Bates determines on earning an MBA to be able to find a job with higher income than the current one and to become an investment bank’s owner. To decide whether to pursue an MBA or not and when to enroll in the program, Ben must weigh, calculate the present value of his income sources, in which working time is an important factor to determine the present value of income sources. Ben is 28 years old now (he expects to work for 38 years from now). If Ben decides to learn for an MBA immediately, it takes Ben only 01-02 years to study and the left time for Ben to work will be around 36-37 years, but in return, with an MBA in hand, during the 36-37 year, Ben will have a good job with higher income than his current job. Conversely, if Ben decides to postpone the pursuit of an MBA, the left time for Ben to work with a more attractive salary after getting an MBA will be shorter, so Ben’s income flow value in this case also will affected. Thus, if deciding to get an MBA soon, Ben will be able to maximize his potential income. In addition, age may affect Ben’s learning ability when taking an MBA course. If he takes the MBA course when younger, his ability to acquire new knowledge will be better. Besides, age also affects his job opportunity after he receives the MBA. In fact, many companies prefer younger candidates to older ones. Therefore, the sooner Ben decides to get an MBA, the more job opportunities there will be for him after he finishes the MBA course. In short, age is one important factor affecting Ben’s determination to get an MBA. To maximize his potential earnings, then Ben should start taking the MBA program as soon as possible. 2. 2. Question 2: What other factors, which are unquantifiable, affect Ben’s decision to pursue an MBA? Beside age an important factor affecting Ben’s decision to get an MBA – there are also some unquantifiable factors that affect his decision, as follows: First, it is reputation of the school that Ben plans to choose. Studying at a prestigious school, his MBA degree will be more valuable. This makes it easy for Ben to find a suitable job with a more attractive salary. Second, it is the MBA program content’s suitableness for the job that Ben plans to find later. This helps Ben accumulate expertise for his future job. Third, it is the financial situation of Ben’s family, especially during his learning time. This affects his family’s ability to cover living expenses. If Ben still has a financial resource to pay for his family’s living expenses during the course, he will find it easier to decide to pursue an MBA than otherwise. 2. 3. Question 3: Assuming that all wages are paid at the end of each year, then what are the best options for Ben from the precise financial standpoint? To identify what are the best options for Ben from the precise financial standpoint, it is needed to calculate the present value (PV) of his income flow under 03 options, as follows: 2. 3. 1. Option 1: Ben still continues to work at Deway Louis Company until retirement. Factors necessary for calculating the present value (PV) in the first option are: Ben’s annual salary at the firm is $ 55,000 and is expected to increase by 3% each year until retirement. His current average tax rate is 26%. Appropriate discount rate is 6. 5%. To calculate the present value (PV) of Ben’s income flow, we can use the increasing annuity formula.

passing of the buff essays

passing of the buff essays In the New World, Europeans looked for ways so bring wealth. The source of wealth came from many different trades, the fishing aspect, oil, gold, slavery, and most of all land. Coming with the land wild animals that could be hunted, for sport, food, and most important fur. The fur that came from these animals was largely used in the world for clothing, leather for protection in the army, and to make the finest clothes from. The discovery of the buffalo help the fur trade really take off in the 1400. The first Europeans thought to discover the buffalo were the Portuguese in Africa in 1415. The buffalo hides were carried home and sold at premium prices all over Europe. The move westward to North America by the Portuguese found another kind of buffalo. The beast was an annormous creature weighing over a ton and measuring 12 feet in length. The buffalo roamed most of the continent of North America at this time. At about the year 1500, the buffalo were believed to have numbered more than 70 million individuals and were perhaps the most numerous, large mammalian species on the planet. This brought about the great fur trade in the new world, the English, Spanish, and French sought the fur of the buffalo and were in heavy competition for the animal. With the early colonization of the eastern sea board of America nearly wiped out the eastern buffalo. By 1720, the eastern buffalo consisted of a few small herds that had been by-passed and over looked in the mountainous areas. In 1790, according to a New York Zoological Society report, those hidden in the mountainous region had been reduced to 1 herd numbering 3 to 400 animals. In 1815, a bull was killed near Charleston, West Virginia. In 1825, a cow and her calf were killed in the Alleghenies. This was the last of not only the eastern buffalo but also the buffalo east of the Mississippi River. By ...

Human Trafficking Policies in Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Human Trafficking Policies in Australia - Essay Example This paper stresses that the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime Convention (UNTOC) protocol and the United Nations Convention on Refugees prevents states from denying entry to people needing protection due to dangerous situations in the country of origin. However, Australia receives many asylum seekers from Asia and Europe and as a result its human trafficking policies are geared towards preventing asylum seekers from entering the country through mandatory detention, lengthy processes by use of swap deals, and a discriminatory visa regime. The paper will discuss the controversial application of these policies and make recommendations on the appropriate policies to eliminate or reduce asylum seekers. According to the paper Australia is one of the countries that ratified the United Nations Convention on Refugees in 1954. The convention prohibits countries from returning asylum seekers or refugees to a place they would be further persecuted. Asylum seekers are those fleeing from their country to avoid racial, ethnic or religious persecution, internal conflicts, mass human rights violations, and foreign aggression. The convention also prohibits states from punishing asylum seekers who enter the country illegally or through smuggling. The asylum seekers are scrutinized by the UNHCR and given refuge status and those that don’t qualify are deported. However, there are those that enter to another country for economic reasons making it difficult to differentiate those needing protection and economic migrants.  

School Safety Paper [w4r] Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

School Safety Paper [w4r] - Essay Example But, unfortunately a student injured recently as one of the window panes slipped over him. The boy had severe internal injuries due to which he lost speech and left hand. All those students who were present around him during the incident were in great shock. The boy was and studying in the eighth standard. He was the only child to his parents. The parents were in utter grief when a group of students went to see him in the hospital. Everyone in the school had many sleepless nights and is panic stricken to go near the new department. It took almost half a year the boy to recover his health but question arises who is to be blamed for the situation? Who will get back his lost speech and hand? Is it the school authority? Or the negligent builder? The principal had put a committee headed by three staff members to look into the matter more seriously. They have presented a final report saying that the builder had used a cheap quality window panes and cement in the construction. The school secretary lodged a case in the court of law against the builder and supervisor for their negligence and teaching. They were convicted with a penalty of $5000 each and reconstruction of the building all over again. But, still who will get back the happy days of innocent boy. The principal decided to help the boy financially towards his further studies in the school of disabled. But, the student was unhappy with this decision. The student wanted to continue in our school as he was confidant in continuing further as usual. Fortunately h e is left with good eye sight, understanding capability and more over his right hand to write and legs to move around. He was one of the brilliant students of our school and everyone was sure that he excels in his academics same as he did before. But, he was still detained due to which he was psychologically upset. He started cursing his fate and helplessness. He

Drug cartels and drug trafficking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Drug cartels and drug trafficking - Essay Example Prices of heroin and cocaine have decreased substantially in the past two decades, indicating greater availability (Lyman, 2010). The efficacy of international narcotics control policies remains a major issue. Millions of Americans purchase illegal drugs, spending roughly $60 billion yearly in multiple illegal markets (Barton, 2007, 18). These drugs are damaging to the user’s overall wellbeing, productivity, decision-making capacity, and health. Furthermore, the U.S. illegal drug market makes massive profits. These profits generate resources needed by global drug trafficking organizations to successfully dodge and fight with law enforcers, to break through legal economic sectors, and, in certain cases, to defy the power of the state (Erlen & Spillane, 2004). Computed in terms of dollar value, four-fifths of the total illegal drugs purchased in the U.S. come from foreign countries, as well as majority of the marijuana, heroin, and cocaine, as reported by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in 2002 (Barton, 2007, 19). According to Hinojosa (2007), the methamphetamine market, as stated by the DEA, is supplied mostly from Mexican and U.S. laboratories while majority of †˜designer’ drugs, unlawfully traded psychotherapeutic drugs, and hallucinogens comes from the U.S. The drug industry is highly profitable and a major source of international criminal operations. As stated in a 2002 report by the State Department’s Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL), more or less 930 tons of cocaine may have been manufactured in South America in 2001 (Barton, 2007, 19). A 2002 investigation by the UN Office on Drugs and Crime calculated the total profit of the illegal drug market in the Caribbean at $3.3 billion (Barton, 2007, 19). Not much is known about the circulation of profits from illegal drug trade, but foreign drug cartels hold substantial power over general

Cardiac Muscle Structure and Function

Cardiac Muscle Structure and Function The structure of cardiac muscle The capacity for cells to utilize biochemical energy to generate both mechanical force and movement of the human body is a dominant feature found in muscle cells. There exist three distinct categories of muscle tissue, each differing by specific structural and functional properties. These categories include smooth muscles, skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles. Smooth muscles are involuntarily contracting, non-striated muscles that surround the inside walls of hollow organs such as the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and both the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Its contraction enables and regulates the progression of liquid content, such as food, urine and blood, along the internal passageways. Skeletal muscles are voluntarily contracting, striated muscles that attach to bones of the skeleton. The contraction of skeletal muscle is primarily responsible for the movement of the skeleton, but also has roles in heat production and protection of internal organs. Cardiac musc les are an involuntarily contracting, striated muscle found exclusively in the walls of the heart, more specifically in the myocardium. Contraction of cardiac muscles propel oxygenated blood into the circulatory system to deliver oxygen to the body, as well as regulates blood pressure (Martini et al., 2009). Cardiac muscle tissue is composed of a network of individual cardiac muscle cells, called cardiomyocytes. Cardiomyocytes are small in size, averaging 10-20ÃŽ ¼m in diameter and 50-100ÃŽ ¼m in length, have a single centrally positioned nucleus and connect to adjacent cells in a branched manner through specialized sites known as intercalated discs (Martini et al., 2009). Two structures that are found within the intercalated discs are  desmosomes and gap junctions. Desmosomes are specialized structures involved in cell-to-cell adhesion and gap junctions are intercellular channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing the free passage of molecules, ions and electrical signals. Within the cytoplasm of striated muscle cells are long, cylindrical organelles termed myofibrils. With a diameter of 1 to 2ÃŽ ¼m and numbering between hundreds to thousands in a cell, myofibrils are enveloped and grouped together by connective tissue called the fasciculus, which forms bundles of myofibrils that spans the length of the cell (Widmaier et al., 2006). Individual myofibrils can be further divided into two types of contractile filaments: thin filaments and thick filaments. These filaments are composed primarily of actin and myosin proteins, respectfully. The thin and thick filaments are aligned in a manner where they form repeating structural units along the length of the myofibril. Among these structures is the sarcomere, which is a Ca2+-dependent contractile unit responsible for muscle contraction and relaxation (Widmaier et al., 2006). An increase in cytoplasmic Ca2+ influx causes the thin and thick filaments to overlap each other, causing a shortening of the sarcomere, leading to a muscle contraction. Alternatively, a decrease in cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels causes the thin and thick filaments to pull away from each other, leading to relaxation of the myofilaments. The specific arrangement of the thin and thick myofilaments is responsible for the striated appearance of both skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue. Electrical stimuli, called action potentials, are required for striated muscle cell contraction. In skeletal muscles, action potentials are derived from neurons in the brain and spinal cord that transmits the signal through the nervous system and innervates muscle fibers, causing contraction. However, unlike skeletal muscles, the contraction of cardiac muscles occurs without neural stimulation, a property called automaticity (Martini et al., 2009). This is because the heart contains pacemaker cells, which are specialized cells that have no contractile function; rather having the ability to initiate and conduct action potentials to neighboring cardiomyocytes. The cardiac action potential propagates across cardiomyocytes through gap junctions, allowing the cells to contract in tandem, which enables the heart to contract as one muscle. Cells which have pacemaker activity constitute 1% of cardiac muscle cells, whereas the other 99% are contractile cells (Sherwood, 2006). The conversion of an electrical stimulus into a mechanical response is performed through a physiological process known as the excitation-contracting coupling or the ECC. This phenomenon has a critical role in muscle cells as it allows a propagating action potential to cause shortening of the sarcomere, leading to muscle cell contraction. When action potentials are produced by pacemaker cells, they conduct across the heart by traveling along the length of the myofibril on the muscle sarcolemma. An action potential will transmit on the sarcolemma until it reaches a transverse-tubule (T-tubule). T-tubules are defined as deep invaginations into the sarcolemma that contact the cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), an organelle that functions as a Ca2+ storing body. Upon penetrating the T-tubules, the action potential will cause a depolarization of the membrane voltage potential, leading to an increased influx of Ca2+ into the cytoplasm. Resting within the T-tubules are many ion tr ansporters such voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channels and Na+ / Ca2+ exchangers (D. Bers, 2002). These Ca2+-transporters are opened/activated when stimulated by action potentials, prompting the entry of extracellular Ca2+ into specific microdomains in the cytosol (Berridge, 2006). An elevation of cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels will trigger the opening of ryanodine receptors (RyR), which are intracellular Ca2+ channels present on the membrane of the SR, allowing stored Ca2+ to exit the SR and enter the cytosol. The mechanism of how Ca2+ ions triggers Ca2+ release from the SR was identified by several groups in the 1960s, and appropriately termed Ca2+-induced- Ca2+-release (Endo et al., 1968; Ford et al., 1968). An overall increase in intracellular Ca2+ level causes Ca2+ to bind and cause a conformational change in Troponin C, a protein present on actin filaments. This conformational change causes a displacement of Tropomyosin, which prevents the interaction of myosin protein with actin filaments, thereby allowing myosin to contact actin, which promotes sarcomeric contraction. Alternatively, Ca2+ sequestration from myofilaments and cytoplasmic depletion prompts a relaxation of the sarcomere. Such a decrease of cytoplasmic Ca2+ occurs by either by re-entering the lumen of organelles, such as the SR and mitochondria, or cellular export by Ca2+ pumps and Na+/ Ca2+ exchangers on the sarcolemma (D. Bers, 2002). The efficiency of muscle contraction is partly depicted by the type of myosin heavy chain (MyHC) that the cell expresses. MyHC are enzymes, found on the head of myosin proteins, which catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP. The rate at which MyHC can hydrolyze ATP ultimately depicts the speed at which the myofilaments contract, as well as the overall energy efficiency of that cell. In cardiomyocytes, two types of MyHC proteins are expressed: ÃŽ ±-MyHC and ÃŽ ²-MyHC. The following table represents the distinguishing features of the cells that express either ÃŽ ±-MyHC or ÃŽ ²-MyHC: Similar to skeletal muscles, cardiomyocytes are categorized into two distinct classes, based on the type of myosin heavy chain (MyHC) that is expressed. Those who predominantly express ÃŽ ±-MyHC are found in adult hearts, contract in a more energy inefficient manner and are quicker to fatigue. In contrast, cardiomyocytes that express more ÃŽ ²-MyHC are present in developing hearts, have a more energy efficient contraction and are more resistant to fatigue. Cardiovascular diseases and pathological cardiac hypertrophy Cardiovascular diseases are disorders that prevent the proper function of the heart and blood vessels, causing abnormalities of the cardiovascular system, which lead to defects in the brain, kidneys, lungs and other parts of the body (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2009). According to the World Health Organization, cardiovascular diseases accounted for 29% of global deaths in 2004, making it the leading cause of death in the world (World Health Organization, 2009). Furthermore, with an aging population, the number of patients diagnosed with heart disease in America is expected to double within the next 30 years, from 5 million to 10 million (Hobbs, 2004). In Canada, this disease was responsible for 31% (or >70,000) of total deaths in 2005 (Statistics Canada, 2009). Amongst the numerous categories of cardiovascular diseases, heart failure is the most prevalent, with the fastest spreading rate and the highest mortality rate over the past decade (Heineke et al., 2006). Heart failure is defined by defects in cardiomyocyte structure, function, rhythm or conduction, which prevents the heart to pump adequate amounts of oxygenated blood and nutrients to meet the bodys demands (McMurray et al., 2005). Individuals living with a failing heart suffer from severe coughing, shortness of breath and edema, leading to a decreased tolerance to exercise and an overall diminishment in physical and mental health. As the disease progresses, patients may develop further pathophysiologies due to detrimental effects on the function of vital organs, ultimately resulting in death. A common abnormality that precedes heart failure is the pathological enlargement of the heart, a condition known as cardiac hypertrophy. Cardiac hypertrophy is induced by the release of hormones, cytokines, chemokines and peptide growth factors, which act on cardiomyocytes in an endocrine, paracrine and autocrine manner (Heineke et al., 2006). The release of these factors occurs in response to increased cardiac workload, myocardial injury or defects in the contractibility of cardiomyocytes (J. Molkentin, 2000). The initial stage leading to cardiac hypertrophy is increased size and cell volume of cardiomyocytes in order to sustain the increased cardiac output demanded by the hypertrophied heart. Such a process is referred to as compensatory hypertrophy. At later stages of cardiac hypertrophy, the hypertrophied heart can no longer keep up with the increased workload, which subjects patients to heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias and sudden death (Berenji et al., 2005). It should be noted physiological cardiac hypertrophy, which occurs during pregnancy, adolescence growth and aerobic training, does not share the same detrimental consequences on cardiomyocytes as pathophysiological heart growth (Oakley, 2001). A characteristic of pathologically hypertrophied hearts is cardiomyocyte disarray, which is a disorder of heart cells. Misaligned cardiomyocytes prompts a disruption in the conduction of action potentials across cells, leading to compromised intracellular Ca2+ kinetics and decreased shortening of the sarcomere, which ultimately compromises the contractions of the heart. The molecular signaling pathways, responsible for cardiac hypertrophy, are being extensively studied by researchers with the hopes of developing therapies to treat cardiac hypertrophy. Calcineurin-NFAT signaling pathway The availability of intracellular calcium (Ca2+) in mammalian cells is critical for their existence and proper function. In addition to its role in muscle cell electrophysiology and contraction, Ca2+ acts as a secondary messenger in many signal transduction pathways, involved in physiological processes such as fertilization, memory, apoptosis, membrane trafficking and cell division (D. M. Bers, 2008). Furthermore, at the molecular level, Ca2+ has been implicated in regulation of gene transcription, DNA replication, DNA repair and both protein synthesis and degradation. A common question in muscle cell biology is that, with its numerous downstream targets, how does Ca2+ specify and activate a particular signaling pathway. It is generally understood that Ca2+ influxes into the cytoplasm through Ca2+ transporters on the sarcolemma as waves of Ca2+. In the 1990s, researchers have identified that depending on the amplitude and frequency at which Ca2+ waves penetrate the cell, different Ca2+-dependent signaling pathways are activated, which also affects gene expression and cell differentiation (Berridge, 1997; Dolmetsch et al., 1997; Dolmetsch et al., 1998). However, the exact molecular mechanisms in which specific Ca2+-dependent pathways in contracting cardiomyocytes are regulated remains disputed due to the highly specialized rhythmic cycling of Ca2+ involved in the hearts ECC. Molkentins group have postulated the existence of Ca2+ microdomains in the cytoplasm, which are relatively independent of the Ca2+ involved in the ECC. Within these microdomains , Ca2+ is locally regulated and can activate protein signaling pathways in that particular region (Houser et al., 2008). Many proteins that require Ca2+ to be active cannot readily bind Ca2+, thus use Calmodulin (CaM), a high affinity Ca2+-binding protein, as a Ca2+ sensor and signal transducer. Expressed in all eukaryotic cells, CaM is a 17kDa protein composed of four EF-hand motifs, each capable of binding a single Ca2+ ion. The affinity to which Ca2+ binds CaM depends on changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentrations. When cytoplasmic Ca2+ level are low, CaM exists in a closed conformation, where the EF-hand motifs are packed together, hiding the Ca2+ binding sites. Alternatively, when intracellular Ca2+ level are high, Ca2+ ions bind to the EF hand motifs on CaM, causing a conformational change that allow Ca2+ to bind more readily to the other motifs, allowing CaM to attain an open configuration (Chin et al., 2000). Because CaM is a small, flexible molecule with numerous targets, such conformational changes are required to expose specific hydrophobic regions on each domain, which allow the Ca2+-CaM c omplex to bind and activate specific proteins (Al-Shanti et al., 2009). One of the most recognized signaling pathways that require the Ca2+-CaM complex to be activated is the Calcineurin Nuclear Factor of Activated T-Cells cascade. Calcineurin (Cn), also referred to as protein phosphatase 2B (PP2B), is a Ca2+-dependent serine/threonine phosphatase that was first discovered in 1979 as a CaM binding protein in brain extracts (Klee et al., 1979). Further research by Schreibers group identified that Cn played a prominent role in the immune system, where the addition of immunosuppressive drugs, cyclosporine A (CsA) and FK506, decreased Cns activity (Liu et al., 1991). Cn is ubiquitously expressed in all cells and the gene that encodes the Cn protein is conserved from yeast to mammals, suggesting a common mode of regulation (Al-Shanti et al., 2009; Rusnak et al., 2000). Once active, Cn can de-phosphorylate a number of transcription factors such as myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFÃŽ ºB) and nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) (Alzuherri et al., 2003; Blaeser et al., 2000; Jain et al., 1993; Michel et al., 2004). In addition to transcription factors, Cn has been identified as a direct regulator of the pro-apoptotic factor, Bcl-2 (Wang et al., 1999). The most characterized downstream target of Cn is the family of NFAT transcription factors. In the heart, the role of the Cn-NFAT signaling pathway in mediating pathological cardiac hypertrophy in vitro and in vivo has been extensively studied (Bueno et al., 2002; De Windt et al., 2001; Hill et al., 2002; Molkentin et al., 1998; Sussman et al., 1998; Zou et al., 2001). Once de-phosphorylated, NFAT transcription factors translocate to the nucleus and dimerize with other transcription factors to re-activate cardiac fetal genes, leadin g to hypertrophy of the adult heart. The structure of Calcineurin Human Cn was first crystallized in 1995 by the Villafranca group (Kissinger et al., 1995). Although it shares similar sequence homology to other serine/threonine protein phosphatases, PP1 and PP2A, the structure of Cn was found to be unque due to its dependence on Ca2+ for optimal activity (Griffith et al., 1995; Kincaid et al., 1988; Klee et al., 1988). From its structure, it was discovered that Cn exists as a heterodimeric protein, consisting of two subunits: the 59kDa catalytic subunit, calcineurin A (CnA), and the 19kDa regulatory subunit, calcineurin B (CnB) (Kissinger et al., 1995). The structure of CnA consists of two domains: a catalytic region which is found on the N-terminal and the regulatory domain which is present on the C-terminal region (Al-Shanti et al., 2009). The regulatory domain of CnA consists of three sub-domains: a CnB binding domain), a CaM binding domain) and an autoinhibitory domain (AI) as depicted in Figure 1.4 (Ke et al., 2003; Klee et al., 1998). Alternatively, the structure of CnB shares a 35% sequence identity to CaM and contains four EF-hand motifs, allowing it to bind Ca2+ ions in a similar mechanism as CaM (Klee et al., 1988; Kretsinger et al., 1973). In non-stimulated muscle cells, Cn is present in its inactive conformation, in the cytoplasm, where the autoinhibitory domain sterically blocks CnAs catalytic domain, rendering the phosphatase inactive. Upon stimulation, cytoplasmic Ca2+ will bind CnB, causing a conformational change, which exposes the CaM binding domain on CnA. Once the Ca2+-CaM complex docks onto its respective binding domain, another conformation change occurs which displaces the autoinhibitory domain from the catalytic domain, enabling the enzyme to be active. The crystal structure of full length human Cn was solved with a resolution of 2.1Ç º. The globular structure of CnA consists of 521 residues, where residues 14-342 form the catalytic domain and residues 343-373 form the CnB binding helical domain (Kissinger et al., 1995). Residues 374-468 and 487-521 are not visible in the crystal structure because they are presumed to exist in a random conformation(Ke et al., 2003). The AI domain is represented by a segment of 18 residues (Ser469-Arg486) that lie over the substrate-binding cleft on the C-terminus of CnA. The AI domain consists of two conserved short ÃŽ ±-helical domains, with five additional residues in its extended form. The residues of the AI domain that have the strongest interactions with the substrate-binding cleft of CnA were identified as Glu481-Arg-Met-Pro484, where Glu481 hydrogen-bonds with water molecules bound to the dimetal site in Cns active site (Kissinger et al., 1995). Residues 343-373 form an extended amphipathic ÃŽ ±-helical region that interacts with hydrophobic residues within the CnB binding cleft. In mammals, CnA is encoded by three genes (CnAÃŽ ±, CnAÃŽ ², CnAÃŽ ³) and CnB by two genes (CnB1, CnB2). Yet in the heart, only CnAÃŽ ±, CnAÃŽ ² and CnB1 are expressed (J. Molkentin, 2000). NFAT proteins NFAT transcription factors were first identified by the Crabtree group where, similar to Cn, NFAT played an important role in the regulation of early T-cell activation genes (Shaw et al., 1988). Since its discovery, researchers have provided evidence that the role of NFAT proteins was not restricted to T-cells, having been implicated in the central nervous system, blood vessels, heart, kidney, bone, skeletal muscle and haematopoietic stem cells (Crabtree et al., 2002; Graef et al., 2001; Hogan et al., 2003; Kiani et al., 2004; Macian, 2005). NFAT proteins are part of the Rel-family of transcription factors. The molecular mass of NFAT ranges from 70-200kDa, which is due to alternative splicing of genes resulting in varying protein sizes and differential phosphorylation states (van Rooij et al., 2002). The primary structure of NFAT consists of a moderately conserved N-homology region (NHR), a conserved Rel-homology region (RHR) and a non-conserved C-terminal domain (CTD). Firstly, the NHR (residues 1-407) contains a transactivation domain (TAD), a Cn docking site, a nuclear localization signal (NLS), a nuclear export signal (NES), serine-rich regions (SRR) and Ser-Pro-X-X-repeating motifs (SP), where X denotes any amino acid. The TAD is required for NFAT to bind the promoter region of genes to initiate transcriptional events. The Cn docking domain contains a SPRIEIT sequence, a variant of PxIxIT, which allows Cn to bind to NFAT and de-phosphorylate serine residues, mediating the nuclear shuttling of NFAT. Secondly, the RHR (residues 408-677), which is conserved among all Rel proteins, confers to a shared DNA binding specificity (L. Chen et al., 1998). The C-terminus of the RHR contains a DNA binding motif, which permit Rel-proteins to bind the 5-GGAAA-3 consensus sequence (Rao, 1994). The N-terminus of the RHR contains a domain that allows NFAT to interact with other transcription factors in the nucleus. Such molecular partners include the leucine zipper protein activator protein-1 (Fos, Jun), the Zn-finger protein GATA-4, the MADS box protein MEF2 and many others (L. Chen et al., 1998; Crabtree et al., 2002; Hogan et al., 2003; Molkentin et al., 1998). Lastly, although the exact role of the CTD (residues 678-928) remains ill defined, due to the differences in the length of the CTD between NFAT isoforms, it is possible that the CTD is responsible for the different transcriptional activity of the NFAT isoforms, as shown by several groups (Calabria et al., 2009; Rinne et al., 2010). NFAT transcription factors are ubiquitously expressed and consists of five isoforms: NFATc1, NFATc2, NFATc3, NFATc4 and NFAT5 (also known as tonicity-responsive enhancer-binding protein or TonEBP) (Mancini et al., 2009). Of the five NFAT proteins, only NFATc1, NFATc2, NFATc3 and NFATc4 are regulated by Ca2+-Cn signaling and are have known roles in skeletal and cardiac muscles (Calabria et al., 2009; van Rooij et al., 2002). NFAT5 cannot interact with Cn due to the absence of a SPRIEIT domain and is therefore insensitive to Ca2+-Cn signaling (Lopez-Rodriguez et al., 1999). Rather, NFAT5 is regulated by osmotic stress and is known to control the expression of cytokines, such as tumor-necrosis factor (TNF) and lymphotoxin-ÃŽ ², in lymphocytes (Lopez-Rodriguez et al., 2001; Macian, 2005). Due to its insensitivity of Cn and unclear roles in muscle cells, for the remainder of this thesis, the focus will be on the Ca2+-Cn regulated NFAT isoforms: NFATc1, NFATc2, NFATc3 and NFATc4. The cellular localization of NFAT proteins depend on the phosphorylation state of approximately 14 serine residues on the NHR. Okamura et al. identified that of these residues, 13 phosphoserines are targeted by Cn and are located in motifs SRR1, SP2 and SP3 (Macian, 2005; Okamura et al., 2000). Upon de-phosphorylation, the NLS sequence of NFAT is exposed and the NES is masked, prompting nuclear entry. NFAT kinases are regulators of NFAT transcription factors, which can interact with NFAT and reversibly phosphorylate the same serine residues that are targeted by Cn. Known NFAT kinases include casein kinase-1 (CK-1), glycogen-synthase 3ÃŽ ² (GSK3-ÃŽ ²), p38 and JUN-N-terminal kinase (JNK) (Beals, Sheridan et al., 1997; Chow et al., 1997; Gomez del Arco et al., 2000; Zhu et al., 1998). Upon re-phosphorylation, the NES sequence is re-exposed whereas the NLS sequence is hidden, prompting cytoplasmic retention of NFAT (Okamura et al., 2000). These kinases can either be classified as mainte nance kinases, which phosphorylate NFAT in the cytosol to prevent nuclear import or export kinases, which target NFAT in the nucleus to promote nuclear export. Each kinase can phosphorylates serine residues on specific motifs. CK-1 acts as both an export and maintenance kinase on SRR1 of NFATc2 (Okamura et al., 2004). GSK3-ÃŽ ² functions as an export kinase on both SP2 and SP3 of NFATc1 and SP2 on NFATc2 (Beals, Clipstone et al., 1997; Macian, 2005). The mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) family consists of p38, JNK and extracellular-regulate-signal kinases (ERK) and can phosphorylate the first serine of SRR1 on different NFAT isoforms. JNK phosphorylates NFATc1, whereas p38 targets NFATc2 (Chow et al., 1997; Gomez del Arco et al., 2000). CK1 may be responsible for phosphorylating the remaining serines on SRR1 (Macian, 2005). Although a cell may have the potential to translate different NFAT isoforms, depending on which NFAT kinase is expressed, only certain NFATs may be nuclea r localized. Cn-NFAT signaling in cardiac hypertrophy Cn-NFAT signaling is described as a multifunctional regulator, where its function depends on the cell type in which this pathway is active. In the brain, Cn-NFAT signaling mediates numerous processes, which include memory, brain strokes, ischemic injury, Parkinson and Alzheimers disease and the regulation of the cAMP-response-element binding protein (CREB) (Shibasaki et al., 2002). In the lungs, Cn-NFAT signaling has been implicated in the perinatal lung maturation and function, and regulating genes involved in the homeostasis of pulmonary surfactant, which is required for proper breathing (Dave et al., 2006). In skeletal muscles, this pathway is required for functional-overload induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy and for mediating skeletal muscle-fiber type conversions from fast muscle fiber type to slow muscle fiber type (Dunn et al., 1999; Michel et al., 2004). In the cardiovascular system, Cn is required for the early development of the heart, specifically the cardiac septum and valves (de la Pompa et al., 1998; Ranger et al., 1998). During heart disease, Cn-NFAT signaling promotes the reactivation of cardiac fetal genes, which are responsible for cardiac growth during development. The reactivation of these genes in the adult heart is responsible for the pathological growth of the heart, and not physiological growth (Wilkins et al., 2004). In 1998, Molkentin et al. first reported the novel role that Cn-NFAT signaling played in mediating pathological cardiac hypertrophy (Molkentin et al., 1998). Among the major findings of this report was that Cn-induced the de-phosphorylation of NFATc4, prompting its nuclear entry and allowed NFATc4 to interact with the GATA-4 transcription factor, leading to cardiac hypertrophy. In addition, cultured cardiomyocytes, treated with Cn inhibitors CsA and FK-506 immunosuppressive drugs, blocked chemical-induced cardiac hypertrophy. To support their in vitro findings, transgenic mice that expressed a cardiac-specific constitutively active form of CnA were generated. The hearts of CnA overexpressing transgenic mice, compared to the hearts of wild-type counterparts, displayed a 2-to-3 fold increase in heart weight-to-body weight ratio, a thickening of the left ventricular wall and intraventicular septum, a 2-fold increase in cross-sectional area of cardiomyocytes and extensive fibrosis. Furth ermore, CnA overexpressing mice had a greater increased susceptibility to sudden death, mimicking the effects of heart failure in humans. Upon treatment with the Cn inhibitor, CsA, the hearts of CnA transgenic mice returned to normal size. Many genes and proteins that are re-employed in response to heart disease have prominent functions in embryonic and fetal heart development. For example, cardiac fetal genes are active during the physiological growth in developing hearts. This family of genes consists of atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), b-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), ÃŽ ±-myosin heavy chain (ÃŽ ±-MHC), ÃŽ ²-myosin heavy chain (ÃŽ ²-MHC), and many others (Oka et al., 2007). When the heart has fully matured into an adult heart, the expression of these genes becomes dormant. During heart disease, hypertrophic stimuli re-activate the expression of these genes in the adult heart, which enables the heart to grow to a pathological state. One of the most studied transcription factor that interacts with NFAT to initiate cardiac hypertrophy are GATA proteins. GATA transcription factors consist of two conserved zinc fingers that are required to bind to the consensus DNA sequence 5-(A/T)GATA(A/G)-3, as well as domains that allow GATA to interact with transcriptional cofactors (Ko et al., 1993; Merika et al., 1993; Oka et al., 2007). Of the six members of the GATA family (GATA-1 to GATA-6), GATA-4, GATA-5 and GATA-6 are expressed in the heart (J. D. Molkentin, 2000). Among the GATA proteins expressed in the heart, GATA-4 has been associated with embryonic cardiogenesis, such as heart tube formation, and pathological growth of the adult heart (Molkentin et al., 1997; Pikkarainen et al., 2004). In addition, GATA-4 is a known regulator of the expression of cardiac structural genes during development. GATA-4 gene targeted mice were embryonic lethal at E7-9.5 due to structural and functional defects of the heart (Molkentin et al., 1997). Alternatively, cultured cardiomyocytes overexpression of GATA-4 caused a 2-fold increase in cell surface area, whereas GATA-4 overexpressing transgenic mice lead to increased heart-weight-to-body weight ratio, cardiomyopathy features of the cells and upregulation in the expression of cardiac fetal genes (Liang, De Windt et al., 2001). The regulation of GATA-4 occurs post-translationally, where such modifications affect its DNA binding ability, transcriptional activity and cellular localization. A number of chemical stimuli that induce cardiac hypertrophy have been associated with the phosphorylation of GATA-4, which increases both its DNA binding and transcriptional activity (Oka et al., 2007; Pikkarainen et al., 2004). Molkentins group identified that phosphorylation of Ser105 on GATA-4 by the ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK was responsible for GATA-4 increased DNA binding affinity and transactivation during heart failure (Charron et al., 2001; Liang, Wiese et al., 2001). Another kinase that targets GATA-4 is GSK3-ÃŽ ², a known negative regulator of cardiac hypertrophy (Haq et al., 2000). GSK3-ÃŽ ²-mediated phosphorylation of GATA-4 prompts its export from the nucleus, rescuing Cn-mediated cardiac hypertrophy (Morisco et al., 2001). A second family of transcription factor that is re-activated during heart disease is the myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2). There are four members of the MEF2 family expressed in vertebrates: MEF2A, MEF2B, MEF2C and MEF2D. MEF2 proteins can either homodimerize or heterodimerize with other transcription factors such as NFAT and GATA, which can then bind to the DNA sequence 5-CTA(A/T)4TAG-3 to carry out transcriptional events (Blaeser et al., 2000; McKinsey et al., 2002; Morin et al., 2000; Oka et al., 2007). Although the MEF2 proteins are expressed in most cell types, their transcriptional activity is restricted to the immune system, neurons and contractile muscle cells (Akazawa et al., 2003). In the heart, MEF2 have critical roles in cardiac differentiation. MEF2C null mice were embryonic lethal, due to cardiac looping defects, an absence of a right ventricle and a downregulation of cardiac structural genes (Bi et al., 1999; Lin et al., 1997; Oka et al., 2007). The majority of MEF2A null mice died 2-10 days after birth because of defects in conduction and architecture of the heart. Surviving MEF2A null mice displayed reduced mitochondrial content and a less efficient conductive system. (Naya et al., 2002). In addition, transgenic mice that express a dominant negative MEF2 died shortly after birth because of cardiomyocyte hypoplasia, thinning of the ventricular walls and heart chamber dilation (Kolodziejczyk et al., 1999; Oka et al., 2007). A greater workload imposed on the heart, a phenotype of cardiac hypertrophy, has been associated with increased MEF2-DNA binding (Molkentin et al., 1993; Nadruz et al., 2003). In cultured cardiomyocytes, adenoviral-mediated overexpression of MEF2A or MEF2C caused sarcomeric degeneration and cell elongation, both of which indicate cardiac dilatation. The hearts of transgenic mice overexpressing MEF2A or MEF2C were subject to contractile defects, ventricular dilation and were more readily hypertrophied when pressure overload stimulation was induced. However, when cells of the transgenic hearts were isolated, rather than having a greater cross-sectional area, the cardiomyocytes were more elliptical in shape, suggesting that MEF2 did not d

A Comparison of Crime and Punishment and Othello :: comparison compare contrast essays

A Comparison of Crime and Punishment and Othello      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In both Crime and Punishment and Othello there is a theme of necessary balance.   Crime and Punishment's theme that man must be balanced in order to function properly is very similar to Othello's theme that, tragically, jealousy is destructive, even to the one that holds it.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov's extreme intellectualism caused him to stop functioning as a complete and balanced individual which ultimately cost him his freedom.   For Othello, it was his extreme jealousy that caused him to become emotionally unbalanced, which cost him both Desdemona and his own life.   In both cases the extremes create unbalance which ends up costing a lot.   There is a difference, however, and that too lies in the extremes; while Raskolnikov is too intellectual and lacks emotion, Othello is a rage of emotions and requires some intellect or rationality.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One stylistic device both authors used to demonstrate this unbalance is foreshadowing.   On page 84 in Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov says, "If they question me, perhaps I will simply tell.   Fall to my knees and tell."   This foreshadows Raskolnikov's confession to the police and his subsequent sentencing to Siberia.   Raskolnikov is obviously unbalanced if he can detachedly hypothesize about his confession. Similarly, Desdemona's willow song foreshadows her own death.   In this way we realize Othello must be extremely unbalanced if his wife can foresee her own death when they are still newly wed. Both foreshadowed events would usually be considered as negative.   The main difference is that while Raskolnikov's imprisonment is temporary, Desdemona's death is permanent.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The interesting thing about both foreshadowed events is their irony. While both events are usually construed as negative, good things come from both. Not until he has been in Siberia a year does Raskolnikov finally renounce his overman theory and become complete and balanced once again.   Also, Desdemona will be able to forgive Othello and be with him throughout eternity.   What makes these happenings different is their justness.   Raskolnikov was rightfully imprisoned for his crime, while Desdemona was unjustly murdered for a crime she did not commit.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Finally, both stories include a very important epiphany. Raskolnikov's acceptance of love and God at Sonya's feet is both similar and dissimilar to

Beijing Market Entry Strategy

Beijing market entry strategy for Frozen Food This report aims to analyze the entry of frozen Beijing market. Use a SWOT analysis approach analyzes the company's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. The report has identified a marketing strategy of entry that will help our company to enter the market effectively. Contains: 1 Summary of the company 2 Frozen market in Beijing 3 SWOT analysis 4 Marketing strategy suggested input. Summary of the company Our frozen food company is only imaginary for this work.This is a company that wants to enter the Beijing market and it conducts a study to define the entry strategy. Our company sells all kinds of frozen food from cans to larger products. For now only work in Europe and we are planning to expand in the world soon. Frozen market in Beijing The frozen food market in Beijing is currently booming in China is expected to grow 16. 1 billion in 2012, mainly concentrated in big cities like Beijing and Hong Kong. The annual demand fo r frozen products is growing around a 3-4% in Beijing, provided by Datamonitor 2009Is such an increase, now, ASIAN SEAFOOD exposure has a new section called Frozen Food Asia, there is provided a forum for buyers to be face to face with suppliers of frozen food in several categories, which are the most important: Ready meals, Chilled and frozen meat products, Frozen fish, Seafood, Vegetables, Potato products, Fruit, Pizza, Bakery products, Cheese, Ice cream, Desserts SWOT ANALYSIS As our company wants to expand and take advantage of the boom that is taking frozen food in Beijing, you need to analyze the market.This section analyzes the company in terms of market Beijing adopting the SWOT approach. Strengths | Weaknesses | High Quality Products| Poor Operate systemExistence of large companies in the sectorUnfamiliar brand| Opportunities | Threats | Rise of frozen food in Beijing Growing | Rising raw material prices| Strengths High Quality Products For the development of our products u se high quality raw materials. It is this Which Helps the holding company its competitive advantages. Undoubtedly This value will make the company easy to Developing its new market. Weaknesses Poor Operate systemThe control overhead is one of the weaknesses that impede the growth of the company. Investment in research and advertising are very low in relation to its competitors. Also the management system of the company is also quite poor. Existence of largue companies in the sector There are already large companies in the Beijing market, and this is very opposed to seize important part of the market share. Unfamiliar brand Being a brand new, we have the problem that we are not known, and this makes it difficult for the company at first, because it affects sales. Opportunities Rise of frozen food in Beijing GrowingWe know that the frozen food market is constantly growing in Beijing, this will affect very positively to our company. Threats Rising raw material prices With the price of basic food and feed commodities on the rise, food manufacturers are increasingly facing pressure on their margins. In our company we use basic raw materials in large amounts. If raw material prices continual rise, it would thus lead to increased pressure on the company’s margins. MARKETING PLAN FOR THE FROZEN FOOD COMPANY Expand into the market for frozen food Beijing can succeed, because other companies already have.But for this we must make a general strategy and go step by step with the plans. The strategy refers to the innovation of feedback regarding the traditional values of the company. This calls for new product innovation strategy, distribution channels, sales promotion and development of new markets as well. The entrance to the Chinese market frozen food, in particular, requires that the plan adequately prepared as presented below. The process of globalisation has witnessed the rapid growth of international activities (Frank 1994).Once a firm expands its operations outside the borders of its own nation-state and outside the dominance of its own home culture, the influence of the host countries’ national cultures becomes reality (Fatehi 1996). Conducting business across international boundaries requires interaction with people and their organizations nurtured in different cultural environments (Kale and Barnes, 1992). Therefore the need for knowledge and understanding of the social-cultural difference between host country and home country becomes of paramount importance.For most western people, China is still a mystic country owing to its cultural features being completely different from those of western countries (Ghauri et al, 2001). Indeed, the traditional Chinese culture, in which Confucian philosophy is dominant, is a high context culture, which is opposite to western culture which is low context. It also has its own incredibly complex Chinese condition (guo qing), which always confuses western people (Ghauri et al, 2001). All of t hese make western negotiators feel difficult and confused when they negotiate with Chinese negotiators.Many failed negotiations are caused by the poor understanding of Chinese culture or lacking of awareness of the Chinese business negotiation style (Kirkbride, Tang ; Westwood, 1998). This is why more and more scholars are studying Sino-Western Business Negotiation in order to be more effective in negotiations with Chinese. CHOOSING A STRATEGY FOR ENTRY IN THE MARKET Choosing appropriate entry strategy To compare with its counterparts, our company has missed an early chance to develop the Chinese market. However, it may enjoy the advantages over the follower strategy in terms of initial market costs and questionable effectiveness.Indeed, for pioneer entrants, some factors such as demand uncertainty, entry scale, advertising intensity, entry time of followers, and the scope of the economy are all risk. Now for Our Frozen Food Company, it is more easily to develop effective entry stra tegy into the emerging market in Beijing. Moreover, studies have demonstrated that those innovative late entrants grow faster than pioneers and have higher market potentials and repeat sales rates. Moreover, they can slow the pioneer’s growth and reduce its marketing spending effectiveness.Nonetheless, in doing so as innovative late entrants, apart from the above mentioned general innovation strategy, the company needs to study how to build its distribution channel in short order and to develop it market share. In so doing, an effective way is to set up joint venture through the Frozen Food Company for to find an appropriate counterpart to merge it and use its distribution channel and factories. This strategy has been evidenced by many examples. Conclusion This work has analysed the FROZEN FOOD COMPANY case, to look at its entry strategy to Beijing of frozen food market.Although our company currently runs smoothly, it has to seek for new income point if it is fighting surviva l in the future. The Beijing frozen food market as an emerging market, although it is also competitive, provides a great potential to increase income. The company have its key strengths in developing new market, and it is right time to think about its future. However, the weaknesses accompanied with the company could be risk in developing new market, as well as external environment. In general, our company may make success in entry to Beijing frozen food market if following a proper marketing strategy.

Free Essays on Phsychology

PSYCHOLOGICAL HUMAN BEHAVIOR Psychology is the very important perspective for human nature. It is very much important for the individual environment. â€Å"Psychology is very much a product of the Western tradition. Whereas a new psychology of the year 2000 contains both the eastern as well as the Western tradition†(Frey,04/06). Psychologists call a person’s self concepts it includes what a person perceives from the person’s self-concept attitudes. It’s related to Psyche means the integrate part of human mind motion connected to those with bodily concepts. â€Å"It however reflects true relationship with the mind-body concept. ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION addresses those domains of social behavior in which cognition plays a major role, including the interface of cognition with overt behavior, affect, and motivation.†(Primis,119). Major perspectives in psychology at this point includes psychoanalysis, humanism and sociobiology. Now, what’s the concept of psychoanalysis is also a very important perspective. â€Å"As a therapy, psychoanalysis is based on observation that individuals are often unaware of many of the factors that determine their emotions and behavior.†(Frey,04/06). â€Å"It is, in addition, a method for learning about the mind, and also a theory, a way of understanding the processes of normal everyday mental functioning and the stages of normal development from infancy to old age.†(psychology.com). â€Å"Furthermore, since psychoanalysis seeks to explain how the human mind works, it contributes insight into whatever the human mind produces.†(apa.org) Sigmund Freud was the first psychoanalyst.†Many of his insights into the human mind, which seemed so revolutionary at the turn of the century, are now widely accepted by most schools of psychological thought. Although others before and during his time had begun to recognize the role of unconscious mental activity, †Freud was the preeminent pioneer in understand... Free Essays on Phsychology Free Essays on Phsychology PSYCHOLOGICAL HUMAN BEHAVIOR Psychology is the very important perspective for human nature. It is very much important for the individual environment. â€Å"Psychology is very much a product of the Western tradition. Whereas a new psychology of the year 2000 contains both the eastern as well as the Western tradition†(Frey,04/06). Psychologists call a person’s self concepts it includes what a person perceives from the person’s self-concept attitudes. It’s related to Psyche means the integrate part of human mind motion connected to those with bodily concepts. â€Å"It however reflects true relationship with the mind-body concept. ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION addresses those domains of social behavior in which cognition plays a major role, including the interface of cognition with overt behavior, affect, and motivation.†(Primis,119). Major perspectives in psychology at this point includes psychoanalysis, humanism and sociobiology. Now, what’s the concept of psychoanalysis is also a very important perspective. â€Å"As a therapy, psychoanalysis is based on observation that individuals are often unaware of many of the factors that determine their emotions and behavior.†(Frey,04/06). â€Å"It is, in addition, a method for learning about the mind, and also a theory, a way of understanding the processes of normal everyday mental functioning and the stages of normal development from infancy to old age.†(psychology.com). â€Å"Furthermore, since psychoanalysis seeks to explain how the human mind works, it contributes insight into whatever the human mind produces.†(apa.org) Sigmund Freud was the first psychoanalyst.†Many of his insights into the human mind, which seemed so revolutionary at the turn of the century, are now widely accepted by most schools of psychological thought. Although others before and during his time had begun to recognize the role of unconscious mental activity, †Freud was the preeminent pioneer in understand...

Definition and Examples of Correctness in Language

Definition and Examples of Correctness in Language In prescriptive grammar, correctness is the notion that certain words, word forms, and syntactic structures meet the standards and conventions (that is, the rules) prescribed by traditional grammarians. Contrast correctness with grammatical error. According to  David Rosenwasser and Jill Stephen, Achieving grammatical correctness is a matter of both knowledgehow to recognize and avoid errorsand timing: when to narrow your focus to proofreading (Writing Analytically, 2012). Examples and Observations It is in vain to set up a language police to stem living developments. (I have always suspected that correctness is the last refuge of those who have nothing to say.)(Friederich Waismann, Analytic-Synthetic V. Analysis, 1952)Concern with correctness, whether mechanical, logical, or rhetorical, is in no way illegitimate or suspect. Virtually all educators evaluate student writing for correctness of spelling, grammar, or logic. What generates the distinctive pedagogies of clear and correct writing is not a concern with correctness that no one else shares, but the rather less widespread notion that rules are somehow context-neutral, that they can be taught by themselves and then applied elsewhere.(Dennis McGrath and Martin B. Spear, The Academic Crisis of the Community College. SUNY Press, 1991)School Grammar and CorrectnessIn nearly every instance, school grammar is traditional grammar. It is concerned primarily with correctness and with the categorical names for the words that make up sentences. Thus, students study grammatical terms and certain rules that are supposed to be associated with correctness. Grammar instruction is justified on the assumption that students who speak or write expressions such as He dont do nothin will modify their language to produce He doesnt do anything if only they learn a bit more grammar. . . .Although most teachers in our public schools continue to prescribe language, linguists dropped prescription long ago, replacing it with the concept of appropriateness conditions. This expression signifies that language use is situation specific and that there is no absolute standard of correctness that applies to all situations. People modify their language on the basis of circumstances and dominant conventions . . ..(James D. Williams, The Teachers Grammar Book. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999) Three Kinds of Rules Most of our attitudes about correctness have been encouraged by generations of grammarians who, in their zeal to codify good English, have confused three kinds of rules:A few date from the twentieth century:But since grammarians have been accusing the best writers of violating such rules for the last 250 years, we have to conclude that for 250 years the best writers have been ignoring both the rules and the grammarians. Which is lucky for grammarians, because if writers did obey all their rules, grammarians would have to keep inventing new ones, or find another line of work.(Joseph M. Williams, Style: The Basics of Clarity and Grace. Longman, 2003) Some rules define what makes English Englisharticles precede nouns: the book, not book the. These are the real rules we violate only when we are tired or rushed. . . .A few rules distinguish Standard English from nonstandard: He doesnt have any money versus He dont have no money. The only writers who consciously follow these rules are those striving to join the educated class. Schooled writers observe these rules as naturally as they observe the real rules and think about them only when they notice others violating them.Finally, some grammarians have invented rules they think we all should observe. Most date from the last half of the eighteenth century: Dont split infinitives, as in to quietly leave.Dont use than after different, as in This is different than that. Use from.Dont use hopefully for I hope, as in Hopefully, it wont rain.Dont use which for that, as in a car which I sold. Freshman Composition and Correctness Composition courses provided a means to teach larger numbers of students at once, assessing their success by measuring their adherence to prescribed standards. . . . [M]any schools [in the late 19th century] began instituting Freshman Composition classes that focused more on correctness than invention. For example, Harvards course English A, initiated in the 1870s, focused less on traditional aspects of rhetoric and more on correctness and formulaic responses. The concept of discipline had changed from moral and religious discipline, codes of conduct and virtue, to mental discipline, means of working with repetitive drills and exercises.(Suzanne Bordelon, Elizabethada A. Wright, and S. Michael Halloran, From Rhetoric to Rhetorics: An Interim Report on the History of American Writing Instruction to 1900. A Short History of Writing Instruction: From Ancient Greece to Contemporary America, 3rd ed., edited by James J. Murphy. Routledge, 2012)

Person-centred counselling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Person-centred counselling - Essay Example   One of the most important principles of person-centred counselling is the presentation of the client as the expert (Arnason 2001, 299).   It aims to help the client to explore, express, and understand his own emotions.   It is believed that the client is able to understand what he feels as well as why he feels so.   Person-centred approach is based on the technologies of the self – the ones that permit the individual to effect by their own means or with the help of the other a certain number of operations in their own bodies, souls, thoughts and way of being.   This type of counselling helps individuals to transform themselves in order to become happy, pure, wise and perfect.     It should be added that person-centred approach to counselling places the great value on self-reliance and self-respect, individual initiative and responsibility (Arnason 2001, 299).   Similar to other types of counselling, person-centred approach requires that dialogues between the client and counsellor should be varied in pace and style within sessions.   There may be long periods of silences as well as lots of story telling from the client (Schapira 2000, 54).   In any case, the counsellors give the clients the opportunity to tell about their troubles and worried without any pressure.   Such relations help to establish the mutual trust and encourage the client to speak openly and voluntary.     Carl Rogers, as the founder of person-centred approach, felt no need to devise theories – trying to fit to the theory meant for him.... In any case, the counsellors give the clients the opportunity to tell about their troubles and worried without any pressure. Such relations help to establish the mutual trust and encourage the client to speak openly and voluntary. Carl Rogers, as the founder of person-centred approach, felt no need to devise theories - trying to fit to the theory meant for him that the experiences and perceptions of the client were ignored (Mytton 1999, 66). Person-centred therapy is the humanistic approach and instead of the focusing on the childhood origins of the client's problems, it is focused on the present experiences. Most of the underlining concepts of person-centred approach are the result of Rogers' childhood experiences: he was brought up to believe that human nature was corrupt and worthless. From this pessimistic view of the world, he has managed to develop the positive theory of personality. Similar to the plants who have the innate tendency to grow from the seed to their full potential, person-centred approach in relation to humans calls this approach the actualizing tendency. Actualizing tendency is the drive which continues throughout the life as humans move towards the fulfilment of all that is possible for them to achieve. Actualization for humans is more than mere physical growth and survival, it includes the reduction and satisfaction of psychological needs, the desire for live and safety, the drive to learn and be creative. Moreover, Rogers believed that actualizing tendency was the only motive needed to account for all human behaviour. The human world consists of memories, sensations, perceptions and meanings that are available to consciousness - internal frame

Gender Language and Power Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gender Language and Power - Essay Example Body Various theorists have focused on how males and females differ in the usage of language, one such theory is the Dominance Approach, and this approach has figured out that the difference between language usage of males and females is caused due to the difference between the degree of power experienced by males and females. The approach states that women exhibit lack of power in their speech and they use language in accordance to the subordinate role expected from them by the society, where as males use language too clearly exhibit power and they clearly reflect the role of superiority assigned to them by the society. Robin Lakoff was one of the early researchers to determine the difference between the usage of language exhibited by both genders and the research even proved that this imbalance is caused due to difference in authority. Lackoff identified that the language used my females is consisted of characteristics that exhibits empathy, lack of swear words that can really hurt , very polite words, words that exhibit intensity, words that contain emptiness, words that request for opinion from others, opinions that lack affirmation. Words and phrases such as: oh my god, extremely beautiful, isn’t it the best? kind off, great performance. Lackoffs observation of how females use language clearly exhibits that women lack confidence. According to Lakoff’s observation, the society is dominated by males and in this society, women are considered as subordinates to males and thus the lack of authority in their speech is expected by the society and same characteristics are even expected by women while they conduct behaviors in social settings (WEATHERALL, p.57, 2002). Dale Spender’s study even clearly state that society views females as a subordinate to males and the language used by females is dominated by the authority and superiority of males and this is majorly witness able in male dominated society (CHRISTIE, p.121, 2000). Recent studies ha ve linked language usage of both the genders with the orientation of relationship, rather than authority and dominance. These studies have concluded that males use language and speech to transfer and receive information, where as females use language to conduct the process of interacting with others. The way males and females interact with same gender or different gender even depends on the groups they joined in their early life as kids. These studies further suggest that males and females use same body language or words with different meaning, for example males might nod their head while exhibiting acceptance and females might not to exhibit that they want to listen more or obtain more information. This approach is recognized as difference approach, this approach focuses on the different ways males and females use language. According to Tannen, conflict arises when males and females from different cultural backgrounds interact with each other as both the genders talk through their own cultural experience (LURIA, p.180, 2006). Tannen states that women use language in a way to create further connections and one the other hand males use language to exhibit their knowledge and abilities and to exhibit